A partir dos anos 1840, diversas fábricas de fiação e tecelagem de algodão se estabeleceram no Município do Rio de Janeiro e em cidades próximas da então capital brasileira. Verificava-se o início de um processo de crescimento não apenas do ramo têxtil, mas de diversos ramos industriais, que era estimulado pela expansão da cafeicultura escravista agroexportadora, pelo aumento da população da capital e das províncias do Sudeste brasileiro e pela adoção de uma série de medidas de estímulo industrial pelo Governo Imperial. Assim, o objetivo maior deste trabalho vincula-se ao estudo das características fundamentais de organização técnico-produtiva das fábricas têxteis criadas na região fluminense.

From the 1840's onwards, several textile mills (for cotton spinning and weaving) were created in Rio de Janeiro County and in some adjacent cities of the Brazilian capital. It was, in fact, the beginning of an industrial growth not only in the textile industries, but also in several branches of industrial activity, which were stimulated by the general growth of slave coffee plantation economy, the population increase in the capital and in the provinces of Southeastern Brazil and the adoption of several measures for industrial stimulus by the Imperial government. Consequently, the objective of this paper is related to the study of the technical and productive organization of the textile mills established in the fluminense region.

Objective. To identify and evaluate inequities in access to drinking water services as reflected in household per capita expenditure on water, and to determine what proportion of household expenditures is spent on water in 11 countries of Latin America and the Caribbean. Methods. Using data from multi-purpose household surveys (such as the Living Standards Measurement Survey Study) conducted in 11 countries from 1995 to 1999, the availability of drinking water as well as total and per capita household expenditures on drinking water were analyzed in light of socioeconomic parameters, such as urban vs. rural setting, household income, type and regularity of water supply service, time spent obtaining water in homes not served by running water, and type of water-purifying treatment, if any. Results. Access to drinking water as well as total and per capita household expenditures on drinking water show an association with household income, economic conditions of the household, and location. The access of the rural population to drinking water services is much more restricted than that of the urban population for groups having similar income. The proportion of families having a household water supply system is comparable in the higher-income rural population and the lower-income urban population. Families without a household water supply system spend a considerable amount of time getting water. For poorer families, this implies additional costs. Low-income families that lack a household water supply spend as much money on water as do families with better income. Access to household water disinfection methods is very limited among poor families due to its relatively high cost, which results in poorer drinking water quality in the lower-income population. Conclusions. Multi-purpose household surveys conducted from the consumer's point of view are important tools for research on equity and health, especially when studying unequal access to, use of, and expenditures on drinking water. It is recommended that countries improve their portion of the surveys that deals with water and sanitation in order to facilitate national health assessments and the establishment of more equitable subsidy programs.

Objetivo. Identificar y evaluar las inequidades en el acceso a y uso de servicios de agua potable tal como se reflejan en los gastos domiciliarios per capita en agua, y determinar qué proporción de los gastos del hogar se destina a pagar el agua en 11 países de América Latina y el Caribe. Métodos. A patrir de datos obtenidos mediante encuestas domiciliarias de tipo general (tales como la Living Standards Measurement Survey) realizadas en 11 países entre 1995 y 1999, la disponibilidad de agua potable y los gastos domiciliarios per capital y totales destinados a obetener agua potable fueron examinados a la luz de parámetros socioeconómicos, tales como la residencia urbana o rural, los ingresos del hogar, el tipo y la regularidad del servicio de distribución de agua, el tiempo dedicado a conseguir el agua en hogares sin alcantarillado y el tipo de sistema de purificación del agua, cuando lo hay. Resultados. El acceso a agua potable, así como los gastos domiciliarios totales y per capital para la obtención de agua, muestran una asociación con los ingresos del hogar, la situación económica del hogar y su ubicación. El acceso de la población rural a servicios de agua potable es mucho más reducido que el de la población urbana en aquellos grupos que devengan ingresos similares. La proporción de las familias que tienen una sistema distribuidor de agua potable en la vivienda es similar en la población rural de más altos ingresos que en la población urbana de ingresos más bajos. Las familias que no tienen un sistema de distribución de agua potable dedican mucho tiempo a conseguir el agua, lo cual implica, para las familias pobres, un gasto adicional. Las familias de bajos ingresos que carecen de una fuente de agua potable en el hogar gastan tanto dinero en conseguir agua como las familias de ingresos más altos. El acceso a métodos de desinfección del agua en el domicilio es muy reducido en el caso de las familias pobres, puesto que estos métodos son relativamente caros. El resultado es que las familias de menores ingresos beben agua de inferior calidad. Conclusiones. Las encuestas domiciliarias para fines generales que se han llevado a cabo desde el punto de vista del consumidor son instrumentos de valor para estudiar la equidad y la salud, particularmente cuando se estudian las desigualdades del acceso a y uso de servicios de agua potable y lo que se gasta en obtenerla. Se recomienda que los países mejoren la parte de la encuesta dedicada al agua y al saneamiento a fin de facilitar la realización de evaluaciones sanitarias a escala nacional y el establecimiento de programas de subsidios más equitativos.

No século XVIII, as Academias Protestantes Dissidentes se constituíram no espaço privilegiado para o ensino das novas Ciências Naturais, na sociedade inglesa. Impossibilitados de ingressar no sistema de ensino fundamental e universitário inglês, controlado legalmente pelos Anglicanos, não restou aos Dissidentes ou Não-Conformistas outra alternativa que não fosse o estabelecimento de Academias de Ensino com o objetivo de preparar os jovens para ingressarem no ministério religioso, na vida universitária e nas atividades profissionais. Entre estas instituições se destacaram as Academias de Warrington e Manchester, sendo a primeira fundada pelos Presbiterianos (autodenominados Dissidentes Racionalistas) e a segunda pelos Unitários, herdeiros do Racionalismo Presbiteriano, mas distanciados da sua perspectiva teológica Calvinista.

The Academies of Prostestant Dissenters were the outstanding institutions for the teaching of new Natural Sciences in the eighteenth-century in the English society. As the Prostestant Dissenters were not allowed to enter in the English system of fundamental and university education, legally controlled by the Anglicans, there was no other alternative to them than the establishment of their Academies for Further Education in order to instruct their youth to the religious ministry, the university courses or the business life. The Academies of Warrington and Manchester were the most distinguished amongst these educational institutions, being respectively established by the Prebysterians (self-named the Rational Dissenters) and the Unitarians, the heirs of Prebysterian Rationalism although distanced of their Calvinist teological perspective.